The Role of Iron in Indonesian Cultural History

 

Iron, as a metal in the history of Indonesian culture, holds a significant place. This metal has long been recognized as essential, as evidenced by its designation in the historical period known as the “Bronze and Iron Ages.” This term became widely known after H.R. van Heekeren published The Bronze-Iron Age of Indonesia in 1958. According to van Heekeren, the development of iron and bronze metallurgy is closely associated with the emergence of Neolithic culture (the advanced stone tool culture) and the rise of agriculture.

Archaeological findings consistently reveal the simultaneous presence of bronze and iron artifacts, a discovery that became the cornerstone for colonial orientalist scholars, who associated it with the invasion of Dong Son culture into the Indonesian archipelago. Dong Son refers to an archaeological site in Vietnam, regarded as a cultural benchmark for metalworking in the archipelago. The unique artifacts found at Dong Son, including bronze drums, spearheads, daggers, shoe axes, and other remnants, serve as key indicators of this cultural influence.

While van Heekeren viewed iron as part of the same continuum of metalworking alongside bronze in the proto-historic period (the transitional phase from prehistory to early recorded history), iron took on an even more significant role in the historical era—especially in Java. As Denys Lombard mentions in Nusa Jawa Silang Budaya: Batas-batas Pembaratan (2018), iron was considered a rare commodity in Java due to the island’s lack of iron ore resources. “In Java, there was no iron, and throughout the pre-colonial period, ironworking was seen as a privilege held by a small group of skilled craftsmen with perceived mystical powers—pande besi,” Lombard writes.

However, the discovery of iron artifacts in archaeological excavations, coupled with iron’s significance in Java’s tosan aji (bladed weaponry) culture, challenges the assumption that iron was a rare commodity. These finds indicate that iron was integrated into the region’s material culture, despite the lack of natural deposits.

One of the earliest instances of ironworking in Java is found at the Prajekan site in Situbondo, East Java, as documented by van Heekeren in The Bronze-Iron Age of Indonesia (1958). The site, discovered in 1955, yielded various metal artifacts believed to date back several centuries BCE. Among these artifacts, the most intriguing is a dagger with a bronze hilt and an iron blade, featuring geometric decorations. This suggests that the item was likely ceremonial and held symbolic value for the community that created it.

Another notable site for early iron usage is the Batujaya Temple Complex in Karawang, West Java. According to Hasan Djafar in his dissertation Kompleks Percandian di Kawasan Situs Batujaya, Karawang, Jawa Barat: Kajian Sejarah Kebudayaan (2007), several iron artifacts, including irregularly shaped blades believed to be swords, daggers, or spearheads, were uncovered in the foundations of a 7th-century temple. Interestingly, Djafar suggests that these iron artifacts were likely forged locally near the temple, supported by the discovery of iron slag indicating the presence of metal workshops in the vicinity.

The discovery of iron and bronze artifacts in burial contexts further suggests that these metals were used as grave goods, a practice common in Neolithic and Megalithic cultures. The fact that these items were found beneath the temple’s foundation implies that the reverence for metal, particularly iron, continued into the historical era, particularly during the Hindu-Buddhist period.

In addition to archaeological findings, several ancient Javanese inscriptions provide valuable insight into the historical use of iron. According to Boechari in Melacak Sejarah Kuno Indonesia lewat Prasasti (2012), blacksmiths were granted special privileges by Javanese kings as early as the 9th century. These blacksmiths, known as “mangilala drawya haji,” were part of a system where their work was compensated through taxes collected by the king.

Moreover, in the Pararaton (2009), a significant Javanese historical text, the legendary figure of Empu Gandring, a blacksmith who created a cursed kris (dagger), underscores the mystical and sacred status attributed to blacksmiths. Gandring’s kris is said to have cursed the kingdom of Singhasari, illustrating the powerful symbolism associated with iron and blacksmithing in Javanese culture.

The cultural significance of blacksmiths and iron may also be traced in the Tantu Panggelaran, an ancient Javanese manuscript written during the late Majapahit period (16th-17th century). The text recounts the genesis of Javanese civilization and mentions the descent of the god Brahma to teach the people of Java how to forge iron. According to the text, Brahma is credited with introducing ironworking, and the title “empu” (master blacksmith) was first bestowed upon those who worked with iron, a title later applied to skilled artisans in other fields.

The use of iron in Javanese culture, both in everyday tools and ceremonial objects, reflects the island’s complex relationship with metallurgy. While iron may have been a rare commodity in Java, its significance and mysticism played a crucial role in the development of the island’s material culture and religious practices.

In conclusion, the history of iron in Indonesia, particularly in Java, is not just about the metal itself but also about the cultural and spiritual values it embodied. From the early archaeological findings in sites like Prajekan and Batujaya to the legendary blacksmiths like Empu Gandring, iron has shaped the cultural and historical narratives of the region. Its continued reverence in both ritual and daily life reveals the deep connections between technology, spirituality, and power in ancient Java.