Since ancient times, the profession of doctors or healers
has held an honored place in society. Far more than just caretakers of physical
well-being, doctors were regarded as part of the intellectual elite. This
esteem can be traced back to early civilizations, such as those in the
Hindu-Buddhist tradition. In fact, in Old Javanese, doctors were known as waidya,
a term derived from the Sanskrit word veda, meaning “knowledge” or “sacred
scripture.” This suggests that doctors were considered custodians of divine
knowledge, further elevating their status in society.
The reverence for doctors was not limited to their role in
health care; it extended into religious and philosophical domains. In Buddhism,
for instance, the physician Jivaka was a prominent figure, becoming the
personal doctor of Buddha himself. According to historical accounts, Jivaka
regularly attended to Buddha’s health, and through these interactions, he
became one of Buddha’s disciples. Jivaka’s status as a key figure in
traditional medicine is still honored today in countries with large Buddhist populations,
such as Thailand and China. His contributions to medicine are seen as spiritual
acts, aligning the profession of healing with religious duty.
In ancient Indonesia, doctors held a significant role not
only as healers but also as royal servants. Archaeological evidence, including
inscriptions, reveals that healers, known as walyan or tabib,
were part of the mangilala drabya haji—the king’s servants, whose
salaries were paid through public taxes. One of the earliest records of such
healers comes from the Waharu I Inscription, dated to 873 AD, which confirms
their place in the kingdom’s social and political structure. Their work is even
depicted in the intricate reliefs of Borobudur Temple, showcasing scenes of
traditional medicine, massage, and childbirth.
As respected as doctors were, their work was not without
scrutiny. Medical ethics were codified in texts from the Majapahit era,
particularly in the Agama manuscript from the 14th century, during the
reign of Hayam Wuruk. The manuscript laid out expectations for both patients
and doctors. It stated that patients were required to pay doctors immediately
for their services. Additionally, doctors were held accountable for the
outcomes of their treatments—if a patient died under their care, the doctor had
to pay a hefty fine. The stakes were even higher if the patient was a Brahmin;
in such cases, the doctor could face execution.
The enforcement of these medical ethics underscores the
critical role doctors played in the social-political landscape of the time.
Health was a major concern for the rulers of the era, and the potential for
doctors to cause harm—whether through negligence or malpractice—was taken very
seriously.
Interestingly, ancient texts also reveal a more sinister
side to the role of doctors. In some cases, their expertise in medicine made
them a source of fear as well as healing. In Śrīwijaya inscriptions from the
6th and 7th centuries, such as the Kota Kapur, Palas Pasemah, and Telaga Batu
inscriptions, doctors were implicated in criminal activities. These texts
describe healers as potential perpetrators of harm, capable of spreading
illness, poisoning individuals, or inducing madness.
These concerns were not entirely unfounded. The inscriptions
mention specific substances used for malicious purposes, such as tuba (Derris
elliptica) for poisoning and tamval (cannabis resin) for
intoxication. This indicates that those with medical knowledge, especially in
pharmacology, were viewed with both respect and suspicion, capable of wielding
their skills for destructive purposes.
One of the most infamous examples of a doctor’s darker role
in history is the case of Tabib Tañca, who is recorded in the Pararaton
manuscript. Tañca, a royal physician, was responsible for treating an ulcer on
the leg of King Jayanāgara of Majapahit. After several unsuccessful attempts to
cure the king, Tañca requested that Jayanāgara remove his amulet, which was
believed to make him invulnerable to injury. During the procedure, however,
Tañca used the opportunity to stab the king with his scalpel, killing him
instantly. Tañca was immediately executed for his betrayal, but his actions
left a dark stain on the history of medicine in ancient Indonesia.
Doctors in ancient societies held positions of great respect
and power, often revered for their wisdom and skill. However, with this power
came a complex legacy—one that included strict ethical codes and the potential
for criminal misuse of medical knowledge. The dual role of healers as both
saviors and possible threats highlights the intricate dynamics of health,
morality, and politics in early Indonesian civilization. Whether through the
religious reverence of figures like Jivaka or the criminal intrigue of
characters like Tabib Tañca, the history of medicine in ancient Indonesia
offers a fascinating glimpse into how this profession shaped and was shaped by
the world around it.
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