In the ancient archipelago of Nusantara, the capital cities
of kingdoms were more than just administrative centers. These capitals were
revered as the spiritual and geopolitical heart of the kingdoms, embodying both
pragmatic and dogmatic roles. The intricate blend of mystical beliefs and
strategic planning in the construction of these capitals offers a fascinating
glimpse into the sophisticated knowledge and cultural practices of the past.
In the Southeast Asian worldview, deeply influenced by
Hindu-Buddhist traditions, the capital was seen as the axis mundi, the center
of the universe. This concept is encapsulated in the mandala system, a
concentric geopolitical structure where the capital served as the focal point
of power. As O.W. Wolters noted in History, Culture and Region in Southeast
Asian Perspectives (1982), this decentralized system placed the capital at
the core of both the physical and spiritual worlds.
This duality of function meant that ancient capitals were
not only hubs of governance but also held significant religious and cultural
importance. Cities like Yogyakarta, with its north-south axis stretching from
Mount Merapi to the Southern Sea, exemplify this integration of the spiritual
and the physical. This alignment was believed to create a harmonious connection
between the earthly and the divine, reinforcing the capital’s role as the
center of the kingdom’s cosmos.
One of the earliest recorded instances of capital
construction in Nusantara is found in the Kedukan Bukit Inscription (682 AD),
which describes the founding of Wanua Śrīwijāya in Palembang, Sumatra. The
inscription tells of Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, the city’s founder, who
embarked on a sacred journey accompanied by thousands of followers before
establishing the capital. This journey, known as siddhayatra, was a
pilgrimage to sacred sites aimed at securing divine blessings for the new city.
The location of Wanua Śrīwijāya was strategically chosen,
situated at the confluence of the Ogan and Musi rivers. This positioning
allowed the rulers to control river traffic and build a network of canals that
enhanced the city’s connectivity and defense. Moreover, the city’s proximity to
Bukit Siguntang, the highest point in the area, added a layer of spiritual
significance, as the hill was regarded as Mount Mahameru, the mythological
center of the world in Hindu-Buddhist belief.
Unlike Wanua Śrīwijāya, which was founded directly by its
ruler, the capital of the Sunda Kingdom, Pakuan Pajajaran, was the result of
deliberate urban planning by a specialist. The fragment Carita Parahyangan,
an ancient Sundanese manuscript, recounts how Bujangga Sedamanah, a skilled
planner, was tasked with selecting and designing the capital’s location. His
survey led him to a hill along the Ci Pakañcilan River, where he established
the city with the royal palace at its center.
Bujangga Sedamanah’s choice was guided by specific criteria,
including proximity to highland areas (ngalingga manik), land surrounded
by two rivers (sri madayung), and terrain split by a river (talaga
kahudanan). These principles ensured that Pakuan Pajajaran was not only
strategically located but also resilient to environmental challenges. The
city’s modern-day location in Bogor aligns with these ancient planning
principles, highlighting the enduring legacy of Sundanese land management
knowledge.
While some capitals were successfully established and
thrived, others faced significant challenges. The capital of the Majapahit
Kingdom, Trowulan, serves as a cautionary tale. Although its location near the
Brantas River and surrounding mountains was initially seen as ideal, the city
was plagued by frequent flooding due to its position on the pro-clastic flow
path of Mount Welirang. This natural hazard, combined with the vulnerability of
clay-based construction materials, led to repeated damage and ultimately
contributed to the city’s decline.
Yet, even in the face of such challenges, the ingenuity of
ancient planners often prevailed. The Sultanate of Banten, for example,
overcame the problem of limited access to clean water by constructing a
sophisticated water filtration system. Under the guidance of Sultan Ageng
Tirtayasa and with the assistance of Dutch architect Lucas Hendrik Cardeel, the
sultanate built dams and filtration systems that purified water from the
Cibanten River and channeled it to the capital, Surosowan.
The capitals of ancient Nusantara were more than mere
political centers; they were carefully planned cities that reflected the
intersection of sacred beliefs and strategic considerations. The knowledge and
practices developed by these early planners have left a lasting impact on the
region’s cultural and historical landscape. From the sacred alignment of
Yogyakarta to the strategic waterways of Palembang, the ancient capitals of
Nusantara continue to inspire and inform modern urban planning in Indonesia.
These cities stand as testaments to the sophisticated understanding of
geography, spirituality, and governance that characterized the civilizations of
ancient Nusantara.
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