The history of kingdoms in Java is deeply intertwined with
the actions and decisions of their kings. These rulers, often considered divine
by their subjects, held the highest authority in their realms. Yet, their power
was not absolute; it was bound by the social contracts and regulations that
defined their society.
In ancient Java, a king’s legitimacy was closely tied to his
perceived divine qualities. According to B.J.O. Schrieke in A
Historical-Sociological Study of Indonesian Society: Rulers and Kingdoms in
Early Java (2016), Javanese kings were only deemed legitimate if they
embodied values associated with divinity. Without these, the Javanese people
believed the world was nearing its end, and a catastrophic event, known as pralaya,
was imminent. Such beliefs often foretold the rise of a savior who would
overthrow the old order, bringing about a new era.
However, the path to revolution was not straightforward. The
Javanese people often expressed their discontent through criticism rather than
immediate rebellion. It was only when a king betrayed his subjects through
oppressive policies—ranging from arrests to outright massacres—that criticism
could ignite the flames of revolution. In some instances, other rulers would
exploit these tensions, sabotaging the revolutionary momentum for their own
gain.
Javanese kings’ responses to their people’s grievances are
well-documented, particularly through a type of inscription known as jayapātra.
As noted by Trigangga in Inscriptions and Kings of the Archipelago
(2015), these inscriptions dealt with civil law issues, such as debts (suddhapātra),
taxation, citizenship, and land matters (jayasong). These inscriptions
often represented the king’s response to complaints or criticisms from the
populace.
One significant example is the Palepangan Inscription (828
Śaka / 906 AD), which details a taxation dispute in Palepangan Village during
the reign of King Daksottama Bāhubajra of the Ancient Mataram Kingdom.
Initially, the king imposed a tax of 6 silver dhārana per plot of land,
based on his surveyor’s measurement of 6 lamwit. However, the people of
Palepangan, feeling the tax was unfair, petitioned the king for a reassessment.
Upon reevaluation, it was discovered that the initial measurements were
excessive, and the king, understanding the people’s concerns, lowered the tax
accordingly.
Another notable instance is the Wurudu Kidul Inscription
(844 Ś / 922 AD), as discussed by Boechari in Jayapattra: A Glimpse of Legal
Practices in Ancient Javanese Society (2012). This inscription recounts the
story of Sang Dhanadi, a resident of Wurudu Kidul Village, who was wrongly
taxed as a foreigner despite being a true Javanese. After presenting his case
to a local official, Sang Tuhan i Padang, Dhanadi received a jayapātra
letter confirming his Javanese status, thereby exempting him from the tax.
However, despite this legal ruling, tax collectors continued to target him,
prompting further legal intervention and ultimately leading to Dhanadi’s
victory.
While some kings were responsive to their people’s
grievances, others were less accommodating. The Pararaton manuscript,
edited by J.L.A. Brandes (1920), illustrates the tyranny of King Kêrtajaya of
the Kingdom of Kādiri. Kêrtajaya demanded that Hindu Śaiwa and Buddhist priests
worship him—a demand that was met with resistance by the religious community,
who viewed it as blasphemous. Despite their polite refusal, Kêrtajaya responded
with magical force, attempting to compel the priests to recognize him as a
deity. This, however, only fueled the rebellion led by Ken Arok, who
capitalized on the priests’ discontent to challenge Kêrtajaya’s rule.
A similar story of defiance is found in the tale of Raden
Wijaya, the founder of the Majapahit Kingdom. Initially celebrated as a savior
who restored order to Java after the Yuan Dynasty invasion, Raden Wijaya’s
reign was later marred by broken promises and internal strife. His failure to
fulfill a promise to Arya Wiraraja, who had supported his rise to power, and
his reliance on poor advice from a provocateur named Mahapati, led to a series
of rebellions from his former allies. Despite his initial success, Wijaya’s
kingdom was left unstable, teetering on the brink of collapse even after his
death.
The history of ancient Javanese kingdoms is a complex
narrative of power, legitimacy, and rebellion. While some kings navigated their
reigns with responsiveness to their people’s needs, others succumbed to tyranny
and betrayal. These stories, preserved in inscriptions and manuscripts, offer a
window into the intricate dynamics that shaped Javanese society and its rulers.
The legacy of these kings—whether as divine protectors or oppressive
tyrants—continues to resonate in the rich tapestry of Javanese history.
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