The 10th century AD marked a pivotal turning point in the
history of Java, a time when the region experienced significant shifts in
political and cultural power. After nearly three centuries of dominance in
Central Java, the formidable Śailendra Dynasty faced the relentless force of
time and change, culminating in its decline and the rise of new powers in the
east.
The collapse of the Śailendra Dynasty, which had been a
dominant force in Central Java, occurred around the reign of King Dyah Wawa.
His reign was shrouded in mystery, contrasting sharply with the preceding era
of prosperity and stability enjoyed by his predecessors. Boechari, in his work Some
Considerations of the Problem of the Shift of Mataram’s Center of Government
from Central to East Java in the 10th Century A.D. (2012), highlights this
mysterious transition, pointing to the sudden emergence of a new claimant to
power: Sindok.
Sindok’s reign marked a significant shift in the political
landscape of Java. Unlike his predecessors, Sindok established his government
center in East Java. Although some scholars, including Boechari, believe Sindok
was related to Dyah Wawa, this new ruler of East Java adopted a different
dynasty name, Iśana, which would be carried forward by his successors. This
shift from Central to East Java raised numerous questions about the underlying
reasons, which remain a topic of scholarly debate to this day.
Two prominent theories attempt to explain this major shift.
R.W. van Bemmelen, in The Geology of Indonesia (1949), posited that the
deadly eruption of Mount Merapi forced the relocation of Java’s political
center. On the other hand, B.J.O. Schrieke, in Kajian Historis Sosiologis
Masyarakat Indonesia (2016), suggested that an economic disaster triggered
by the proliferation of temple constructions prompted the move.
Despite these theories, scholars generally agree that the
shift was due to a disaster of significant magnitude. However, it is important
to note that the greatest disaster on Java during that period occurred a
century later, known as pralaya (doomsday), which was faced by the formidable
King Airlangga.
Airlangga, a ruler with Balinese blood from his father’s
side, rose to prominence in the wake of turmoil. According to V.H. Witasari in Prasasti
Pucangan Berbahasa Sanskerta (959 Ś): A Re-evaluation (2009), Airlangga
claimed descent from Mahendradattā, a princess of the Iśana Dynasty. Although
his father’s identity is not clearly mentioned in the Pucangan Inscription,
other inscriptions reveal that Airlangga was the son of King Udayana of Bali.
Despite being born in Bali, Airlangga’s political destiny
unfolded in his mother’s homeland, Java. As a young prince, Airlangga was
betrothed to his maternal cousin, the daughter of King Dharmawangsa Têguh.
However, their wedding day was marred by a sudden rebel attack led by Haji Wura
Wari, resulting in the deaths of Dharmawangsa Têguh and his daughter. Airlangga
narrowly escaped this pralaya-like disaster and fled to the forest, living an
ascetic life with his loyal servant, Narottama.
During his exile, Airlangga garnered political support,
especially from the Śaiwa and Buddhist clergy. He eventually ascended the
throne in 1019 AD, portraying himself as an incarnation of Vishnu. This claim
was not mere embellishment but a strategic alignment with Hindu Vaishnavism,
which revered Vishnu as a messianic figure during pralaya.
Airlangga’s reign was marked by significant military and
political achievements. He successfully quelled rebellions and subdued numerous
petty kings in East Java by 1041 AD, earning him the reputation of a formidable
ruler. His image as a “protector of the world” was repeatedly used in his
political and military campaigns, reinforcing his authority.
Airlangga is often compared to other great rulers of his
era, such as Suryavarman I of Khmer and Aniruddha of Burma, for his innovative
governance. He implemented new bureaucratic, economic, and social systems, with
one of his hallmark policies being the politics of reciprocity. This policy
granted tax-exempt land to political factions that supported his efforts to
unify Java.
However, despite his achievements, Airlangga’s governance
was not without flaws. In Reconsidering Java’s Reformer King: A Functional
Analysis of King Airlangga’s Governance Style in the 11th Century AD
(2022), the non-ideal aspects of his reign are highlighted, particularly his
reliance on repressive measures rather than preventive ones. This approach led
to recurring rebellions, such as those led by Haji Wengker, and ultimately
forced Airlangga to divide his kingdom due to succession conflicts.
The 10th and 11th centuries in Java were periods of
significant transformation, marked by the decline of the Śailendra Dynasty, the
rise of the Iśana Dynasty, and the impactful reign of King Airlangga. These
events shaped the historical and cultural landscape of Java, leaving a legacy
that continues to be studied and debated by scholars today.
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