The Shifting Sands of Power: Java in the 10th and 11th Centuries


 

The 10th century AD marked a pivotal turning point in the history of Java, a time when the region experienced significant shifts in political and cultural power. After nearly three centuries of dominance in Central Java, the formidable Śailendra Dynasty faced the relentless force of time and change, culminating in its decline and the rise of new powers in the east.

The collapse of the Śailendra Dynasty, which had been a dominant force in Central Java, occurred around the reign of King Dyah Wawa. His reign was shrouded in mystery, contrasting sharply with the preceding era of prosperity and stability enjoyed by his predecessors. Boechari, in his work Some Considerations of the Problem of the Shift of Mataram’s Center of Government from Central to East Java in the 10th Century A.D. (2012), highlights this mysterious transition, pointing to the sudden emergence of a new claimant to power: Sindok.

Sindok’s reign marked a significant shift in the political landscape of Java. Unlike his predecessors, Sindok established his government center in East Java. Although some scholars, including Boechari, believe Sindok was related to Dyah Wawa, this new ruler of East Java adopted a different dynasty name, Iśana, which would be carried forward by his successors. This shift from Central to East Java raised numerous questions about the underlying reasons, which remain a topic of scholarly debate to this day.

Two prominent theories attempt to explain this major shift. R.W. van Bemmelen, in The Geology of Indonesia (1949), posited that the deadly eruption of Mount Merapi forced the relocation of Java’s political center. On the other hand, B.J.O. Schrieke, in Kajian Historis Sosiologis Masyarakat Indonesia (2016), suggested that an economic disaster triggered by the proliferation of temple constructions prompted the move.

Despite these theories, scholars generally agree that the shift was due to a disaster of significant magnitude. However, it is important to note that the greatest disaster on Java during that period occurred a century later, known as pralaya (doomsday), which was faced by the formidable King Airlangga.

Airlangga, a ruler with Balinese blood from his father’s side, rose to prominence in the wake of turmoil. According to V.H. Witasari in Prasasti Pucangan Berbahasa Sanskerta (959 Ś): A Re-evaluation (2009), Airlangga claimed descent from Mahendradattā, a princess of the Iśana Dynasty. Although his father’s identity is not clearly mentioned in the Pucangan Inscription, other inscriptions reveal that Airlangga was the son of King Udayana of Bali.

Despite being born in Bali, Airlangga’s political destiny unfolded in his mother’s homeland, Java. As a young prince, Airlangga was betrothed to his maternal cousin, the daughter of King Dharmawangsa Têguh. However, their wedding day was marred by a sudden rebel attack led by Haji Wura Wari, resulting in the deaths of Dharmawangsa Têguh and his daughter. Airlangga narrowly escaped this pralaya-like disaster and fled to the forest, living an ascetic life with his loyal servant, Narottama.

During his exile, Airlangga garnered political support, especially from the Śaiwa and Buddhist clergy. He eventually ascended the throne in 1019 AD, portraying himself as an incarnation of Vishnu. This claim was not mere embellishment but a strategic alignment with Hindu Vaishnavism, which revered Vishnu as a messianic figure during pralaya.

Airlangga’s reign was marked by significant military and political achievements. He successfully quelled rebellions and subdued numerous petty kings in East Java by 1041 AD, earning him the reputation of a formidable ruler. His image as a “protector of the world” was repeatedly used in his political and military campaigns, reinforcing his authority.

Airlangga is often compared to other great rulers of his era, such as Suryavarman I of Khmer and Aniruddha of Burma, for his innovative governance. He implemented new bureaucratic, economic, and social systems, with one of his hallmark policies being the politics of reciprocity. This policy granted tax-exempt land to political factions that supported his efforts to unify Java.

However, despite his achievements, Airlangga’s governance was not without flaws. In Reconsidering Java’s Reformer King: A Functional Analysis of King Airlangga’s Governance Style in the 11th Century AD (2022), the non-ideal aspects of his reign are highlighted, particularly his reliance on repressive measures rather than preventive ones. This approach led to recurring rebellions, such as those led by Haji Wengker, and ultimately forced Airlangga to divide his kingdom due to succession conflicts.

The 10th and 11th centuries in Java were periods of significant transformation, marked by the decline of the Śailendra Dynasty, the rise of the Iśana Dynasty, and the impactful reign of King Airlangga. These events shaped the historical and cultural landscape of Java, leaving a legacy that continues to be studied and debated by scholars today.

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